英语语法

英语语法

一. 绪论

不要把语法学习的优先级排太高,最起码在能够流畅听说读写前没有太大的必要去精深语法。

1.1 英语简介

  • 英语是盎格鲁—萨克逊人的民族语。
  • 属于印欧语系的日耳曼西部语支。
  • 三个特征:
    1. 曲折变化形式较少:除名词、代词、动词、形容词和副词有变化,数词、介词、连词、冠词和感叹词都是不变的。
    2. 词汇的开放性:,一半为日耳曼语族词汇,一半为罗曼语族词汇,以及其他舶来词。
    3. 句法的灵活性:只有三种句子结构,简单句、并列句和复合句。

1.2 简单句

Simple sentences:简单句,不能再拆分的完整句。

(1)句子成分 Clause Elements

句子组成:Professor Ward teaches English to university students.

  • 主语部分(subject group):Professor Ward。

    人/物

  • 谓语部分(predicate group):teaches English to university students。

    主语后都是谓语部分,主谓宾中的谓指的是谓语动词。

    动作 Verbs + 发生了什么,根据动词分为5种基本句型:

    1. 主语 + 不及物动词(主谓):My cat + sleeps.

    2. 主语 + 单及物动词 + 宾语(主谓宾):I like you.

    3. 主语 + 双及物动词+ 间接宾语(indirect object) + 直接宾语(direct object):He teaches me English.

    4. 主语 + 复杂及物动词 + 宾语 + (宾语)补语:I consider you smart.

    5. 主语 +(联)系动词 + (主语)补语/表语:Elephant is tall. 非动作,is只作赋予。

      Elephant looks tall,look除了划等号,还有看起来的意思。

句子成分:

  1. 主语(subject):全句述说的对象,一般为相当于名词的词位于句首。

  2. 谓语/谓语动词(predicate or predicate verb):说明主语的动作或状态,常用动词担任,置于主语之后(区别于谓语部分)。

  3. 宾语:表示及物动词(及物表示可以直接跟宾语)的动作对象和介词所联系的对象,常有相当于名词的词担任,置于及物动词或介词之后。

  4. 补语(complement):宾语补语和主语补语

    • 补语用来补充主语和宾语意义,着重说明主语或宾语的特征,常由名词或形容词担任。
    • 表语(predicative)是位于连系动词之后的主语补语。
  5. 定语(attribute/attributive):修饰主语或宾语,限定或修饰名词或相当于名词的词,由形容词或相当于形容词的短语或从句担任。形容词常置于名词之前,相当于形容词的则置于名词之后。

    The little white rabbit ate a large carrot.

    John had a great desire to travel.

  6. 状语(adverbial):修饰谓语动词(动词、形容词、副词以及全句的),常由副词或相当于副词的短语或从句担任。修饰动词时,位于之前,也可以位于之后;修饰形容词或副词时,置于之间。

    The rabbit ate quickly.

    I don`t think the plan will succeed.

  7. 同位语(appositive):用来再把主语或宾语说一遍,与前者同等地位。

    Tom, a great warrior, win the race.

虚词在句子中一般不担任成分,位置比较固定:

  • 冠词位于名词前:

    Karl bought a video recorder.

  • 介词一般位于名词或代词之前:

    My car broke down on the highway.

  • 连词置于词与词、短语与短语、分句与分句、主句与主句之间,或置于从句之首:

    You had to have a job or go hungry.

  • 感叹词往往用于句首:

    Oh, please don`t ask me any more.

连系动词:不能独立做谓语,必须与表语一起构成系表结构,也就是所谓的合成谓语,用来说明主语的状态、特征、性质、身份等

  • 最常见的连系动词为be/系动词,即完全连系动词
  • 另外还有look/turn/feel/become/sound/remain等半连系动词(由实义动词变来的)。一般半系动词强调主语所处的状态或主语的属性特点;做实义动词时强调动作。

例如:

  • The girl is smelling the flower.(实义动词)
  • The flower smells good .

(2)动词分类

  • 实义动词:

    • 及物动词:有承受者的动词
      • 宾语
      • 双宾语
      • 复合宾语
    • 不及物动词(intransitive verbs):没有承受者的动词
  • 系动词:be,seem,turn,become等 + 表语

    • 状态系动词:be,Our future will be beautiful.

    • 感官系动词:如五感动词(fell,smell,sound,taste,look)与like搭配使用表示”X起来像“

      The meat smells terrible, but tastes good.

    • 持续系动词:用来表示主语继续或保持一种状况或态度,有keep,remain,stay,stand,continue,lie,hold,rest。

      He always keeps silent at meeting.

    • 表象系动词:表示看起来像这一概念,有seem,appear

      It seems that everything will be OK.

    • 变化系动词:表示主语变成什么样,状态变化,主要有become,grow,turn,get,go,come,run,make,fall。

      The machine went wrong.

  • 助动词:

    • be +
      • doing
      • done
    • have +
      • done
      • been doing
    • do,does,did
    • will,shall,would,should

1.3 复杂句

  • 复合句/并列句(Compound Sentence),简单叠加。

  • 复杂句(Complex Sentence),句子套句子,从属关系。

    • 主句 Main clause

    • 从句 Subordinate clause:简单句修改作为句子的句子成分。

      • 名词性从句:

        • 作主语:主语从句
        • 作宾语:宾语从句
        • 作表语(主语补语):表语从句
        • 作同位语:同位语从句
      • 作定语:定语从句

      • 作状语:状语从句

句子结构相同,但其中词语的词性未必一样:同是主谓宾

  • The rabbit ate a carrot.
  • He saw something over there.

1.4 词性/词类

句子成分不等于词类,除了谓语动词一定是动词,其余成分都包含多种词类。

很多词汇都可以属于不同词类。

  • 实词(notional word):有实义。

    1. 名词:noun,缩写为 n. ,如book,water,涵盖如People、Places、Things、Ideas。
    2. 代词:pronoun,缩写为 pron. ,如I,you,This。
    3. 形容词:adjective,缩写为 a.adj. ,如clear,happy。
    4. 数词:numeral,缩写为 num. ,如four,sixty。
    5. 动词:verb,缩写为 v. ,如come,take。
    6. 副词:adverb,缩写为 adv. ,如here,today。
      • 表示行为或状态特征,修饰动词、形容词、副词或全句。
  • 虚词(form word):无实义。

    1. 冠词:article,缩写为 art. ,如a,the。放在名词前帮助说明。
    2. 介词:preposition,缩写为 prep. ,如of,to。
      • 前置词,表示名词、代词等与其他词的关系。
    3. 连词:conjunction,缩写为 conj. ,如and,or。连接词和句子。
    4. 感叹词:interjection,缩写为 int. ,如oh,alas。
  • 短语构成的词类:

    1. 短语动词(phrasal verb):如get up,call on,take care of。
    2. 短语介词(phrasal preposition):如because of,instead of,in front of。
    3. 短语连词(phrasal conjunction):如as if,so that,as long as。
    4. 从属关联词(subordinate correlative):即引导从句的连词、疑问代词、疑问副词、关系代词、关系副词、缩合连接代词和缩合连接副词。

1.5 时态

谓语动词的特点,即时态(tense,TAM):时间 + 状态,排列组合后有16种

  • 表示动作时间(tense):

    • 过去
    • 现在
    • 将来
    • 过去将来:从过去某个时间点算将来。
  • 表示动作的状态(aspect):

    • 一般:未说明
    • 完成
    • 进行
    • 完成进行:不但完成而且继续。
  • 动作的语气(mood):

    • 虚拟语气:表示意愿,和事实相反的假设等

      If I were a rabbit.(not was)

    • 陈述语气:

      I ate a carrot and…

    • 祈使语气:

      Eat this carrot and…

  • Present Simple:I do
  • Present Continuous:I am doing
  • Present Perfect:I have done
  • Present Perfect Continuous:I have been doing
  • Past Simple:I did
  • Past Continuous:I was doing
  • Past Perfect:I had done
  • Past Perfect Continuous:I had been doing
  • Future Simple:I will do
  • Future Continuous:I will be doing
  • Future Perfect:I will have done
  • Future Perfect Continuous:I will have been doing

1.6 助动词

助动词(Auxiliary Verbs):协助谓语动词来表达其不能单独表达的如否定、可能性、必须性等意思。

  • 完成:吃过了,have eaten
  • 进行:正在吃,is eating
  • 被动:被吃,is eaten
  • 能力:能吃,can eat
  • 可能:might eat
  • 义务:must eat
  • 否定:do not eat

作为助动词时常常没有实义,但助动词作为实义动词时有其含义,常常使人混淆:can->易拉罐,might->力量,do->做,have->拥有,be->存在

1.7 非谓语动词(难点)

动词除了充当谓语,还可以作为非谓语动词:非谓语动词可以取代所有的从句,从而简化句子,这些身份的动词不再具有TAM的功能。

  • 主语
  • 宾语
  • 补语
  • 定语

包括:

  • 动词不定式:动词形式同一般原型
  • 现在分词:和动名词,谓语动词进行时都是verb + ing
  • 动名词
  • 过去分词:同谓语动词的完成时态。

1.8 短语

分类:

  1. 名词短语(noun phrase):作用相当于名词

    My cousin is a university student.

  2. 动词短语(verb phrase):动词 + 介词/介词/名词

    I can`t believe John has failed.

    Keep an eye on the baby while I am out.

    You have to be patient with him.

  3. 形容词短语(adjectival phrase):

    The clouds soon cleared away and it became quite warm.

  4. 副词短语(adverbial phrase):

    John plays the piano very nice.

  5. 介词短语(prepositional phrase):常用作状语

    The car is waiting at the gate.

  6. 不定式短语(infinitive phrase):

    To eat three times a day is healthy.

  7. 动名词短语(gerundial phrase):

    Watching TV is a pleasure.

  8. 分词短语(participial phrase):

    The woman washing the dishes is my aunt.

  9. 固定词组(set phrase):词序和意义都固定的习语

    Dr. smith is to leave at once.

1.9 从句

分类:

  • 主语从句(subject clause):

    That we shall be late is certain.

    How this happened is not clear to anyone.

  • 表语从句(predicative clause):

    The trouble is that I have lost his address.

  • 宾语从句(object clause):

    She asked me which I liked best.

  • 定语从句(attributive clause):

    The man who I saw is called Smith.

  • 状语从句(adverbial clause):

    The house stood where three roads met.

    If she asks me, I`ll tell her.

  • 同位语从句(appositive clause):

    The fact that the money has gone does not mean is was stolen.

1.10 句子

句子(sentence)是具有主语和谓语部分的一组词,包括五种基本结构:

  1. 主语+谓语:

    Day downs.

  2. 主语+谓语+宾语:

    Rose understands French.

  3. 主语+谓语+间接宾语+直接宾语:

    He told us the whole story.

  4. 主语+谓语+主语补语 或 主语+连系动词+表语:

    He died a poor man.

    Tom`s father is a professor.

  5. 主语+谓语+宾语+宾语补语:

    He found George intelligent.

句子结构分类:

  • 简单句:含有主语谓语的句子。

    Fire and water do not agree.

  • 并列句:由等立连词把两个或以上的简单句合成的句子。

    I came home early, but she remained to the end of the concert.

  • 复合句:由关联词把主句和一个或以上从句合成的句子。

    He said he would come in the evening.

句子目的分类:

  • 陈述句:陈述事实

    The sun rises in the east.

  • 疑问句:提出问题

    Who is standing at the window?

  • 祈使句:表示请求

    Open the window, please.

  • 感叹句:表示喜怒哀乐等情绪

    How spotless the snow is!

二. 基础语法

2.1 GPA语法评分标准

Criterion of the writing test:

  • task response:(考察写作能力)
    1. 有没有回应题干中的所有内容
    2. 有没有清晰的个人观点
    3. 有没有在核心段落中扩展小分论点
  • coherence and cohesion:衔接与连贯(考察写作能力)
    1. 有没有清晰的论证过程
    2. 使用一些逻辑连接词
    3. 核心段落要有中心句
  • lexical resource:词汇量(考察英语水平)
  • grammatical range and accuracy:语法宽度和准确性(考察英语水平)

语法拿分范围:5~7

  • 7 分:
    • Use a variety of complex structures:使用各种复杂结构 (从句,虚拟语气,强调句型,独立主格,倒装,非谓语,介词使用等)
    • Produces frequent error-free sentences:频繁写出不犯错的句子
    • Has good control of grammar and punctuation but make a few errors:对语法和标点符号控制得很好,但可以有一点点错误(3到5个)。
  • 6 分:
    • uses a mix of simple and complex sentence forms:使用混合简单和复杂的句子形式。
    • makes some errors in grammar and punctuation but they rarely reduce communication:在语法和标点上有一些错误,但这些错误很少会影响理解。
  • 5 分:
    • uses only a limited range of structures:只使用有限的结构范围
    • attempts complex sentences but this tend to be less accurate than simple sentences:尝试复杂的句子,但往往不如简单的句子准确。
    • may make frequent grammatical errors and punctuation may be faculty; errors can cause some
      difficulty for the reader:可能会经常出现语法错误,标点符号可能是教员;错误会给读者带来一些困难。

2.2 复杂句结构

A variety of complex structures:

  • 并列句(compound sentence):并列复合句,两个或以上的主谓结构-姐妹关系;连词,中间往往有逗号。

    It is clear that the proportion of girls saw a significant increase, while that of boys decreased sharply over the decade from 2001 to 2010.

    As is shown in the diagram, the first step is to pick peaches from trees, and then they will be transported to the factory by a truck.

    • 表示并列:and,as well as,not only but also,neither nor,both and
    • 表示选择:or,either or
    • 表示转折:but,while/whereas,yet
    • 表示因果:so,for,and therefore,and thus
    • 表示顺序:and then
  • 复杂句(complex sentence):从属复合句,主干+修饰

    • 定语从句:修饰名词–adj

      • 政府应该投资在可以给大多数纳税人带来利润的领域。

        The government should invest in the fields that can bring real benefits to taxpayers.

      • 全职工作的母亲们不能很好地照顾她们的孩子。

        The mothers who work full-time cannot take good care of their children.

      • 很多学生选择那个他们可以喝免费咖啡的图书馆。

        Many students choose the library where they can have free coffee.

    • 状语从句:修饰动词或限定句子–adv

      • 政府应该给老年人提供足够多的养老金,因为他们自己无法在大城市谋生。

        The government should provide enough pensions for the elderly in the metropolis because they cannot make a living in the metropolis by themselves.

      • 当毕业生找工作时,他们通常优先重视工资。

        When graduates hunt for jobs, they usually give top priority to salaries.

      • 学生们会选择出国旅游一旦他们通过考试。

        Students will travel abroad once they pass the exam.

    • 主语从句:从句在句子中做主语

      • 政府应该做的就是给老年人提供足够多的养老金。

        What the government should do is to provide enough pensions for the elderly

      • 是否男人和女人应该均摊家务已经吸引了我们的关注。

        Whether men and women should share housework equally has attracted our great
        attention.

    • 宾语从句:从句在句子中做宾语

      • 我认为,不努力没有人可以通过考试。

        I believe that the government should provide enough pensions for the elderly

      • 我认为政府应该投资大量的钱在旅游业。

        I hold that the government needs to invest a great amount of money in tourism industry.

    • 表语从句:从句在句子中做表语

      • 我的观点是动物实验在道德上是错误的。

        My idea is that the government should provide enough pensions for the elderly

    • 同位语从句:解释说明一个抽象名词。

      • 青少年通常有错误的观点就是成功可以被取得而不用努力工作。

        Teenagers usually have the wrong idea that success can be achieved without working hard

      • 你应该有信心就是祂可以将你从一切的罪恶中拯救出来。

        You should have the faith that he can save you from all of your sins.

  • 非谓语:不是谓语,目的是规避双谓语

    谓语:do/did/does/can do/will do/have done/be doing/be done

    非谓语:to do;doing;done

    • To do/doing,做主语

      • Studying English makes me happy.
      • Playing basketball allows teenagers to cultivate team spirit.
      • Watching too much TV may cause students to be seriously addicted to the screen.
    • doing/done,做后置定语

      • The students who choose to study abroad need to learn English.

        The students=who,重复两次。定语从句无主语,不能有谓语,变为非谓语。

        主动用doing,被动用done

        The students choosing to learn English need to learn English.

      • The countries planning to develop tourism industry need to collect more taxes.

    • doing/done,做状语

      • Compared with apples, pears are usually sweeter.

      • Comparing those apples, I choose three.

      • Feeling a little cold, I plan to go shopping for clothes this weekend.

      • Influenced by advertisements, I buy many things that I do not need .

      • 结果状语:

        Nowadays, many readers can have access to e-libraries, making it possible for them to borrow books without commuting.

        Many adults go to major cities for better jobs, leaving their young children unprotected at home.

  • 介词+n/doing/being done

    • 介词做表语

      I am at home.

      I am with my parents.

      I am in dire need of financial support.

      I am in favor of animal testing.

      I am against smoking in public places.

    • 介词做后置定语。

      The people in extreme poverty usually suffer from various diseases.

      Couples with children are usually busy.

      The kite of good quality can fly high.

    • 介词做状语。

      Due to serious air pollution, many people in the metropolis suffer from lung diseases.

      Thanks to advanced medical care, people can live longer than their grandparents.

      Despite some troubles of garbage-sorting, it is still a positive development in general.

  • 主语多样性:

    • 能发出动作的对象或者主体:the government; people; they; I ; citizens; the young; the elderly
    • Doing做主语
    • 抽象名词作主语
    • It is +adj for sb to do sth
    • There be+n (就近原则)
    • 主语从句

2.3 标点符号

逗号不能连接两个完整句子:

  • John values his work, he usually gets to his office early in the morning. (×)
  • John values his work, and he usually gets to his office early in the morning.(√)

加逗号的地方:

  • 并列句:and; but; so; and therefore; or; and then; while; whereas; yet(并列连词)

    John values his work, and he usually gets to his office early in the morning.

  • 引导状语从句的连词: when; where; because; so that ; if ; although (前加中不加

    Because you are honest, I like you very much.

    I like you very much because you are honest.

  • 非限制性定语从句:完整句子, which…….(which 指代前面一件事或者一个名词)

    I have ordered an extremely pricey hotel, which costs me a great
    amount of time.
    I have ordered a hotel facing the sea, which allows me to see the
    sunrise clearly everyday.

  • 副词/介词/非谓语:放在句首,通常有逗号,Generally/In addition/Feeling awkward, I……….

    Generally, girls do not like dogs.

    At school, students usually have weekends.

    Feeling a little cold, I choose not to attend the class.

  • 插入语/同位语:插入语-给予补充信息,语法上独立; 同位语-解释说明一个名词
    (前后有逗号)

    John, I believe, is one of the most talented students in our class.

    John’s mother, a teacher in local high school, is my role model.

2.4 四个基本句型

  1. 主谓宾

    Teenagers should consume less fast food.

    The proportion of girls fluctuates.

    The proportion of girls fluctuates significantly.

    The pork consumption sharply rises.

    The sales of clothes soar.

    The number of girls studying aboard plunges.

    Environmental problems have seriously impeded.

  2. 被动语态 be done

    The fish are caught from the sea.

    Moon cakes are packed in boxes.

    Beef is frozen in the fridge.

    Children should be sent to the kindergarten.

    Some effective measures should be adopted by the government to release
    traffic pressure.

    The economic development of the area is often hindered due to serious
    environmental problems.

  3. It is + adj. for sb. to do sth. by doing sth.

    It is unhealthy for teenagers to consume too much fast food.

    It is effective to lose weight by having a diet.

    It is feasible for the government to release the traffic pressure by controlling the
    number of private cars.

    It is possible for students to get band 7 by working hard.

  4. There be +n. (就近原则)

    There should be less time spent on the screen for teenagers.

    There should be less consumption of fast food.

    There is an apple and two pears. / there are two pears and an apple.

Adolescents should spend less time on the screen.

•Less time should be spent on the screen for adolescents.

•It is beneficial for adolescents to spend less time on the screen.

•There should be less time for teenagers to spend on the screen.

•There should be less time spent on the screen for teenagers.

•政府应该采取措施解决交通问题

•The government should take measures to solve traffic problems.

•Measures should be taken by the government to solve traffic problems.

•It is necessary for the government to take measures to solve traffic problems.

•There should be some measures for the government to take to solve traffic problems.

•There should be some measures taken by the government to solve

traffic problems.

2.5 五个词组搭配

(1)Be+n/adj/prep

•It is a fact that……(表示背景)

•确实很多家长选择把孩子送到私立学校来获取更好的教育。

•It is a fact that many parents choose to send their children to private schools for better education.

•It is a common phenomenon that…..(表示背景)

•很多年长的人被选举来承担政府的重要职责而不是年轻人。

•It is a common phenomenon that the elderly are elected to undertake important positions of the government rather than the young.

•现在越来越多的人喜欢买名牌,原因是什么?这是一个积极还是消极的影响?

•It is a common phenomenon that an increasing number of customers prefer to buy famous brands of products such as bags, clothes and cars.

•It is +adj +for sb/sth to do sth by doing sth

justified 合理的 unjustified 不合理的
vitally important 重要的 pointless 不重要的
reasonable 合理的 unreasonable 不合理的
necessary 有必要的 unnecessary 不必要的
feasible 可行的 unfeasible 不可行的
effective 有效的 ineffective 无效的
fair 公平的 unfair 不公平的
appropriate 合适的 inappropriate 不合适的
realistic 现实的 unrealistic 不现实的
flexible 灵活的 inflexible 不灵活的
possible 可能的 impossible 不可能的

•I am in favor of…. 我支持….

•I am against….. 我反对…

•It is of great importance to do sth ……是很重要的

•I am with great respect to do sth

•The newspaper industry is in decline. 衰落

•The price of oil is on the rise.

•The poor countries are in dire need of financial support.

(2)vt+(冠词)+adj+ n

•play an important role in

•develop some good characters

•put in a good performance

•have a devastating effect on

•see/witness a significant increase

•pose a huge threat to

•make enormous contributions to + n

•become qualified employees

(3)Adv+Adj

•seriously polluted

•highly addictive

•incredibly beautiful

•extremely dangerous

•particularly intelligent

•especially worried

•vitally important

•程度副词

academically outstanding

socially active

economically independent

financially successful

physically strong

mentally healthy

environmentally friendly

morally wrong

visually accessible

culturally diversified

方面副词

(4)V+adv/adv+V

•increase significantly

•decrease slowly

•seriously affect

•greatly promote

•gradually become popular

•strongly recommend

•financially aid the country

benefit teenagers both

physically and mentally

heavily depend on

significantly promote

副词的位置

①放在实意动词之前; 情态动词、助动词、系动词之后。

②I am only 18.

③I have only missed the beginning.

④You should only date one person at a time.

⑤The use of machines has greatly improved our work efficiency.

(5)prep+n/doing

•随着时间的流逝

•With time going by,………介词后面不能加句子,就不能加谓语,只能加非谓语。

•As time goes by,…… 连词 + 句子

•With+n+doing/done

•With many parents choosing to send their children to private schools,…..

•With much time spent on homework,…..

介词+名词 连词+句子
Due to+n because+句子
such as +n for example+句子
despite+n although +句子

•Although learning English is difficult, I still choose to learn it with a positive attitude.

•Despite difficulties of learning English,…..

•Despite some troubles brought by garbage classification,….

•Due to a great amount of waste water discharged by the factories,….

句子翻译:

•那些社交活跃的学生通常很漂亮,这说明长相在发展性格方面扮演了一个重要角色。(which indicates that)

•Those socially active students are often incredibly good-looking, which indicates that appearance plays a significantly important role in developing one’s characters.

•根据词性背诵固定搭配–根据搭配写句子–准确/地道/多样

三. 四种时态

考点:

雅思大作文 时态
辩论类-全文呈现、论证自己观点
To what extent do you agree or disagree?
Is it a positive or negative development?
Do advantages outweigh disadvantages?
讨论类-全文讨论两个观点并呈现个人立场
Discuss both views and give your own opinion.
报告类–问两个问题
What are the reasons? What are the solutions?
What are the problems? What are the solutions?
What are the effects? How to solve the problems?
①一般现在时(最常见)
②情态动词+动词原形(很常见)
Can/may/will/could/might/would
③现在完成时(表背景)
④一般将来时(条件状语从句)
流程图 时态
生命周期类 一般现在时(主动语态较多)
工艺流程类 一般现在时(被动语态较多)
数据图 时态
过去的时间 一般过去时
现在的时间 一般现在时
将来的时间 预计是
地图 时态
过去的地图+过去的地图 一般过去时
过去的地图+现在的地图 一般过去时+现在完成时
现在的地图+将来的地图 一般将来时(预计是)

3.1 一般现在时态

大作文中的主语:

  1. 能够发出动作的人或者集体

    citizens; people; the government; the society;the elderly; the young;

    the staff; employees; students; the school

    Many adolescents are addicted to video games, and they can be easily distracted from their study.

  2. Doing做主语

    •Getting addicted to video games may cause adolescents to be easily distracted from

    •犯罪使罪犯过一个悲惨的生活

    •Committing crimes causes criminals to lead a miserable life.

    •玩儿太多的电子游戏使青少年很容易被分心

    •Playing too many video games causes teenagers to be easily distracted.

  3. 抽象名词做主语(高分选手)

    •Serious addiction to video games may….

    •犯罪率的上升直接导致每个人都觉得在外工作和生活不安全。

    •A rise in crime rate will directly lead to the result that everyone feels insecure to work and live outside.

    •极度的贫穷使当地人遭受着各种各样的常见疾病。

    •The extreme poverty causes local people to suffer from a range of common diseases.

  4. It is….

  5. There be…..

是I吗?是You吗?是复数吗?
都不是—后面动词+s

•制作工艺–被动语态:be done(transitive)

•解冻: The fish are defrosted.(transitive)

• The fish thaw.(intransitive)

•Pick the peaches from the tree. 祈使句不能用在流程图中

•The cocoons are selected, and then heated in hot water.

•Coffee and milk is mixed together, and then poured into a cup.

•The whole process of producing silk cloth can be divided into 5 steps.

制作桃子罐头

•Pick-transport-wash-peel-cut in half-soak-steam-package-deliver-sell

•流程图的写作难点在于凑字数

3.2 现在完成时

•构成: have/has done

•我已经看过那个电影了—不跟你看了

•我已经吃过饭了—不要请我吃

•表示后面情况的原因或者背景

•手机的使用像吸烟一样反社会,所以应该像吸烟一样禁止手机的使用在一些地方。

•The overuse of phones has seriously affected our public life so that some people begin comparing it to smoking. (背景句-小)

3.3 过去时态

(数据图+地图)过去的时间

•构成:动词的过去式

•否定:did not +do

动态图句式

•①The number of…. increased significantly.

•②There was a dramatic increase in the number of….

•③The number of….saw a significant increase.

•④A dramatic increase was seen in the number of….

•我们班的女生的数量缓慢地下降在过去五年

•The number of girls in our class decreased slowly in the past five years.

•The number of girls in our class decreased to the bottom at 300.

•There was a slow decrease in the number of girls in our class.

•The past five years saw a slow decrease in the number of girls in our class.

•A slow decrease was seen in the number of girls in our class.

3.4 将来时态

(大作文+数据图+地图题)

•大作文:条件状语从句(主将从现)

•If the government provides enough pensions for the elderly, their living standard will be greatly improved.

数据图

•be expected /indicated/predicted to

•will probably

•In spite of some fluctuation, the proportion of older people will probably continue to increase in the next two decades in the three countries. A more dramatic rise is predicted between 2030 and 2040 in Japan, by which time it is expected that the proportion of elder people will be similar in the three countries.

地图

•be expected /indicated/predicted to

•will probably

•A house is expected to be built in the south of the town in the following 20 years.

3.5 小作文复杂句型(18句)

①…… before+句子/being done/doing(表示先后)

②……, after which +完整句子(表示先后)

③After…..,…….. (表示先后)

④It is clear/noticeable that….(表示主要特征)

⑤It is note-worthy that….(表示并列)

⑥The year XXXX marks the point at which XX exceed/overtake XX(表交点)

⑦XX stand at XX. 表示起点

⑧XX reach/arrive at XX/the peak/the bottom at XX.(表示端点值或极值)

⑨an increase was seen ……., with a jump of XX in XX years from XXXX to XXXX

(表示上升幅度)

⑩Despite some fluctuation, XX saw an increasing trend in general during this period.

⑪……,while/whereas……(表示对比)

⑫……is a little/much/far/30% /twice larger than …….(表示对比、倍数)

⑬……is twice/three times/four times as large as……(表示倍数)

⑭对象+占有+百分比+of+ 总数

占有:occupy; account for; represent; take up; make up; represent

Girls account for 20% of all students in my class.

⑮对象 have/has/had the largest percentage/proportion/amount/number among all the categories. (最高级)

⑯The whole process of producing XX can be divided into XX steps

⑰A is located/situated in/on/to the east of B

⑱A lie in/on/to the east of B

四. 其他常见句型

4.1 主谓宾-vt.+(冠词)+adj+n

The government should adopt some measures.
The government should adopt some effective measures immediately.
Parents play an essential role.
The elderly put huge pressure on the government.
My parents allow a flexible schedule.
Employers often motivate the staff by lectures
Environmental problems often hinder economic development of the local area.

4.2 主系表(Be+n)

My mother is a teacher.
It is a fact that young people cannot tell right from wrong.
It is a common phenomenon that the elderly are the leaders of the government.
It is a truth that nobody can meet our expectation all the time.

4.3 主系表(be+adj)

Those girls are incredibly good-looking.
Many video games are highly addictive.
It is vitally important for teachers to give several examples.
It is possible for students to get Band 7 by working hard.
It is effective for girls to lose weight by having a diet.

4.4 主系表(be+prep)

I am in favor of animal experiments.
I am against smoking in public places.
Students are at school.
It is of great significance/ importance to so sth.
The newspaper industry is in decline.
The price of oil is on the rise.
Poor countries are in dire need of financial help.

五. 定语

5.1 简介

  • 定语,修饰名词,一般翻译为……的,
  • 表示事物的性质或状态,
  • 分为前置和后置,
  • 常用来做定语的有:形容词、介词短语、定语从句、分词结构等。

翻译并找出定语:

  • Generation gap can be found between parents and children.

    父母和孩子间可以发现代沟。

  • A good personality exerts great impacts on one’s career.

    好的性格会对一个人的生涯造成巨大的影响。

  • Couple with children were more likely to live in poverty.

    有孩子的夫妇更有可能会生活在贫困中。

  • John’s father is a teacher.

    约翰的父亲是个教师。

  • Clearly, we are now living in an updating society/America is a developed country.

    很明显,我们现在生活在一个不断变化的社会,美国是一个发达国家。

  • Studying abroad provides students with a good opportunity to experience a totally different culture.

    出国留学为学生提供了一个体验完全不同文化的好机会。

  • Students living in Beijing can have access to the latest teaching method.

    生活在北京的学生有机会接触最新的教学方法。

  • Students locked in the classroom are starving.

    被锁在教室里的学生在挨饿。

  • That is a good book which is about social relationships.

    这是一本关于社会关系的好书。

(1)adj+n

  • a productive director
  • an effective way
  • 所有格指名词 + ` ,如 dog`s
  • 单数名词 + `s ,如the boy`s dog
  • 复数名词 + ` ,my parents`friends

(2)分词结构

分词:具有动词及形容词二者特征的词,尤指以-ing或-ed,-d,-t,-en或-n结尾的英语动词性形容词。

分词形容词:

  • 主动关系:doing,主谓
    • rising sun,roaring lion,working classes
  • 被动关系:done,谓宾
    • used cars,cleaned dishes,broken bottles

(3)n+prep

  • people in extreme poverty…极端贫困的人
  • the reason for this problem…这个问题的原因
  • the cause of this issue…这个问题的原因
  • people in different age groups…不同年龄段的人
  • the suggestion of great value/importance…
  • people in favor of animal experiments…
  • people against women taking maternity leave…
  • couples with several children…

(4)定语从句

  • 定义:在复合中修饰名词或代词的从句是定语从句
  • 先行词:被定语从句修饰的名词或代词
  • 定语从句一般放在先行词的后面
  • 引导词:
    • 关系代词:that; which; who
    • 关系副词:when; where; why

that; which; who:

  • I like the girl who works in the factory.

    the girl= who

  • I could not ignore the dog that had been barking all night.

    the dog=that

  • I would like to borrow the book which you recommended yesterday.

    the book =which

that, which, who 引导定语从句指代前面的名词,后面+不完整句子,它们与后面的部分共同构成从句。

when; where; why

  • 时间名词 + when:

    • I cannot forget the day when I met you the first time.
    • The life cycle of the silkworm begins when the moth lays an egg.
  • 地点名词 + where:

  • The government should also make people willing to stay where they were born.

  • I like the place where you study English.

  • reason + why:

  • The reason why he left the company was unknown

where的特殊用法

  • where 可以修饰抽象的地点名词:situation; field; case; job; profession; conversation; industry; point
  • Today, we will discuss a number of cases where beginners of English fail to use the language properly.
  • She wants a job where her management skills can be put to good use.
  • I like the conversation where I can talk more.
  • I like the job where I can teach grammar.
  • The government should invest in the fields where most taxpayers can reap benefits.
  • There are cases where wives complain about their husbands not doing housework.

只用which,不用that的情况

  • 有逗号,which 指前面一个事或者名词

    I like the book which/that you recommended yesterday.

    修饰–……的 70%

    BJ citizens produce a great amount of waste everyday, which contaminates the earth and river to a large extent.

    指代-这-递进(非限制)

    I cried for hours, which made my mother worried.

    指代一件事30%,这

  • 介词提前

    I like the Lamy pen with which I can write well.

    You should check the desk on which the most expensive book is placed.

    You should find the city in which your future husband can work.

其他情况都可以用that

用That而不用Which的情况

  • 先行词为all, everything, nothing, something, little, few这种不定代词时

    There is little that I can use.

  • 先行词被all, each, few, much, every, no, some, any等不定代词修饰时

    All the books that you need are here.

  • 先行词被序数词或者形容词最高级修饰时

    This is the first composition he has written in English.

  • 先行词既有人,又有物的时候

    He talked about the teachers and schools that he had visited

  • 先行词被the only, the very, the last 修饰时

    This is the very gun that I am looking for.

  • 关系代词在从句中做表语的时候

    He is not the young man that he was thirty years ago.

翻译句子:

  • 可以鼓励年轻人建立积极的世界观的运动员应该代言知名品牌。(endorse)
  • 政府需要解决的主要问题是不断增大的贫富差距。(gap)
  • 大多数年轻人想居住在有更多就业机会的城市
  • 司机师傅违反交通规则的情况有时会发生当他们被顾客催促的时候。(rush)
  • 牛肉的消耗量在1992年到到达最高点5吨,那时鸡肉的消耗量只有1吨。
  • 很多人反对禁止吸烟的主要原因是这个政策会打击烟草业

ØAthletes who can encourage young people to build positive world views should endorse famous brands.

ØThe main problem that the government needs to solve is the constantly increasing gap between the rich and the poor.

ØMost young people want to live in the cities which have more job opportunities.

ØThe consumption of beef reached the peak at 5 tons in 1992 when that of chicken was only 1 ton.

ØThe situation where drivers break traffic rules sometimes happens when they are rushed by passengers.

ØThe reason why many people are against banning smoking is that this policy will attack tobacco industry.

6.3 功能句

(一)定从功能句

Which引导非限制性定语从句,指代前面一件事, 后面的谓语动词用单数。

  • The movie industry has boomed in recent years, which greatly promotes the domestic economic development.
  • People tend to check their phones when hanging with their friends, which is detrimental to enhancing their relationship.

一句话(一个现象),which:表示递进关系,对前面现象的评论或者继续阐述

  • enables/allows sb to do sth:使能够,使有机会
  • encourages sb to do sth:鼓励…
  • makes it possible/difficult for sb to do sth
  • makes it/sth/sb adj
  • means that +完整
  • contributes to/promotes…
  • is beneficial to +n/doing
  • leads to/results in +n
  • causes sb to do sth
  • prevents/deters sb from doing sth
  • discourages sb from doing sth
  • is detrimental to +n/doing
  • hinders +n /sb from doing sth 阻碍
  • has a devastating effect on
  • poses a threat to 对……造成威胁
  • poses pressure on 对……造成压力

Some people believe that children can learn effectively by watching TV and they should be encouraged to watch TV regularly both at home and school.

To what extent do you agree or disagree?

  • 与传统的教学方法相比,电视上的视频使学习变得简单得多,并且学生很愿意去按照这种方式学习如果他们被如此鼓励,这可能使课本与老师的课程更加得没有吸引力。
  • Compared with traditional teaching methods, the videos on TV make learning much easier and children are surely happy to learn through it if they are encouraged so, which may make books or lectures less attractive and appealing.

Some people think government should invest more money in teaching science than other subjects in order for a country to develop and progress.

To what extent do you agree or disagree?

  • 在科技教学方面更多的投资会鼓励科技相关产业更多的劳动力,这可能会阻碍需要创造型人才领域的就业。
  • More investment in teaching science may encourage growing workforce in science-related industry, which may hinder the employment of the fields that require creative talents.

Some people argue that too much attention and too many resources are given to the protection of wild animals and birds.

To what extent do you agree or disagree?

  • 随着农业、居住和工业活动的扩张,野生动物的数量见证了一个大幅度的下降,这对生态平衡造成了巨大的威胁。
  • With the expansion of agriculture, settlement and industrial activities, the number of wild animals has seen a plunge, which poses a great threat to our ecological balance.

In many countries women are allowed to take maternity leave from their jobs during their first month after the birth of their baby.

Do advantages outweigh disadvantages?

  • 如果女性可以休产假,那么公司在录取员工的时候肯定会把这个情况考虑在内,这会阻碍女性在职场中担任很重要的角色尽管他们的能力很高。
  • If women are entitled to rest for a certain period of time after giving birth, the company will certainly take it into account when recruiting, which may hinder them from undertaking important positions despite their high qualification.

(二)定从功能句

  • Those who , 那些……样的人
  • Those students who…
  • Those elders who….
  • Those who cannot focus on class lack self-control.
  • Those who do not know the psychology of consumers cannot sell.

Some people think government should invest more money in teaching science than other subjects in order for a country to develop and progress.

To what extent do you agree or disagree?

  • 那些盲目选择科技作为他们专业的学生可能觉得很难去找到工作,有这么多的申请者竞争。
  • Those students who blindly choose science as their major may find it difficult to secure a job with so many applicants competing.

Some people argue that too much attention and too many resources are given to the protection of wild animals and birds.

To what extent do you agree or disagree?

  • 那些反对野生动物保护的人可能认为钱应该花在公共服务上,因为这对居民的福祉更有益处。
  • Those who are against investment in wild animal protection may think that the money should be spent on public services, which they believe are more important parts for citizens’ well-being.

In many countries women are allowed to take maternity leave from their jobs during their first month after the birth of their baby.

Do advantages outweigh disadvantages?

  • 那些休完产假再来工作的女性更倾向于有一个比较好的家庭关系,从而有一个更好的工作状态,这对公司的长远发展也是十分有利的。
  • Those mothers who have taken maternity leave are more likely to enjoy a good relationship with their families and therefore put in a better performance at work, which is also beneficial to the long-term development of the company.

(三)doing做后置定语

分析过程:

  • There is a door that leads to the garden.
  • that=a door
  • 不喜欢重复
  • 省略that
  • 定语从句无主语—就不再是定语从句
  • leads to 这个谓语动词就要变成—非谓语
  • 非谓语有三个选项:doing/done/to do
  • 因为 a door 和 lead 是主动关系,所以用doing
  • There is a door leading to the garden.

案例:

  • 选择出国留学的学生们需要在前期做大量的准备工作以适应国外陌生的环境。
  • Those students choosing to study abroad need to make adequate preparations so as to adapt to a totally strange environment.
  • 经常参观博物馆的青少年通常更能在课堂上一个好的表现比起那些花大量时间玩电子游戏的青少年。
  • Those teenagers visiting museums regularly usually put in a better performance at class than those spending much time on video games.
  • 去美国旅游的印度游客占了总人数的20%。
  • The Indian tourists travelling to America account for 20% of whole.

(四)done 做后置定语

分析过程:

  • There are many children that are addicted to watching TV.
  • that = children
  • 不喜欢重复
  • 省略that
  • 定语从句无主语—就不再是定语从句
  • are addicted to 这个谓语动词就要变成—非谓语
  • 非谓语有三个选项:doing/done/to do
  • 因为 children 和 addict 是被动关系,所以用done
  • There are many children addicted to watching TV.

案例:

  • 被明星代言的广告常常成功劝说一些消费者去买他们根本不需要的东西。
  • The advertisements performed by celebrities can often successfully persuade some customers to buy the products they barely need.
  • 对于沉浸在电影里的观众来说最令人沮丧的事就是听到电话铃声响起。
  • It will be disturbing for the audience immersed in the movie to hear someone’s phone ringing.
  • 位于村庄南部的停车场已经被扩建了。
  • The car park located in the south of the village has been expanded.

七. 状语

待整理:

  • 现在分词作伴随状语

八. 读书笔记

《剑桥雅思语法精炼精讲》

1. Present Tenses

1.1 一般现在时(Present simple)

  • +:verb / verb + (e)s:He plays tennis.
  • -:do/does not + verb:She doesn’t play tennis.
  • ?:do/does … + verb? Do you play tennis?

场景:

  • 经常性的习惯,反复发生的动作,描述频率的词汇包括:always、generally、normally、usually、often、sometimes、rarely、never、every day、every evening.
  • 永久性的情况
  • 陈述事实或广为接受的真理
  • 提供指导或指示
  • 讲述故事、电影、书籍和戏剧

1.2 现在进行时(Present continuous)

  • +:am/is/are + verb + -ing:He`s living in Thailand.
  • -:am/is/are not + verb + -ing:I`m not living in Thailand.
  • ?:am/is/are … + verb + -ing? Are they living in Thailand?

场景:

  • 现在的情况或状态,经常使用的单词或短语:at the moment、currently、now、this week/month/year

    I`m studying really hard for my exams.

    My cousin is living in Thailand at the moment = he doesn’t normally live there.

  • 说话间正在发生的动作:I`m waiting for my friends.

  • 趋势或正在变化的情况:The price of petrol is rising dramatically.

  • 经常发生的动作,常与always、constantly、continually、forever等副词连用,表示羡慕、批评等情绪:

    My mum`s always saying I don’t help enough!

    He`s always visiting exciting places!

1.3 状态动词(State verbs)

状态动词表示一种事实,而不是暂时的事情,通常不出现在现在进行时的句子里,表达想法、感情、感知、占有和描述等状态。

  • 想法:agree、assume、believe、disagree、forget、hope、 know、regret、remember、suppose、think、understand

    I assume you`re too busy to play computer games.

  • 感情:adore、despise、dislike、enjoy、feel、hate、like、love、mind、prefer、want

    Do you mind if I ask you a few questions?

  • 感知:feel、hear、see、smell、taste,谈论正在发生的事情时可以用can

    This pudding smells delicious.

    I can smell something burning.

  • 占有:have、own、belong

    My parents own a restaurant.

  • 描述:appear、contain、look、look like、mean、resemble、seem、smell、sound、taste、weigh

    You look like your mother

  • 当意思本身表示暂时性时,一些状态动词可以使用进行时,如:

    • What are you thinking about?
    • I think you should XXX.
    • I`m tasting the sauce to see if it needs any more salt.
    • The sauce tastes delicious.
    • She`s having a great time.(is having = is experiencing, not possession)
    • Students don`t generally have much money.(have = possession)

1.4 现在完成时(Present perfect simple)

  • +:have/has + past participle:She`s started the assignment.
  • -:have/has not + past participle:I haven`t started the assignment.
  • ?:have/has … + past participle?:Have you started the assignment?

场景:

  • 到现在(today,this week)为止仍为结束的一段时间

    I`ve written a rough plan this morning.

  • 现在之前的过去某个时间点已经发生的事情,句中不需要指出具体发生的时间

    I`ve collected plenty of information.(at some point before now and I will use it to write my essay)

    经常使用以下表示时间的单词和短语:ever、never、before、up to now、still、so far

    It`s the longest I`ve ever had to write.(at any point before now)

    但是如果强调的只有某件事情在某时发生了,使用一般过去时。

    I wasted a lot of time last week.(not: I have wasted a lot of time last week)

  • 起源于过去,并延续到现在的某种状态,通常和for、since连用

    I`ve worked really hard for the last two weeks.(for指某个时间段,since则指某个时间点)

  • 过去未提及的时间里发生的,与现在情况有联系的事情

    I`ve read all the books on the reading list.(I have the notes now)

    通常使用以下表示时间的单词和短语:recently、just、already、yet

    I`ve just got up.

    Have you written your assignment yet?

对比:

  • 现在完成时

    • 连接过去和现在:

      I`ve made quite a lot of notes.(at some point before now and I may make more notes)

    • 不关注过去某个具体的时间点:

      Have you read the leaflet?(at some time before now)

    • 使用说明时段仍未结束的时间表达

      I`ve read six articles this week.(this week isn’t finished)

  • 一般过去时:

    • 仅仅谈论过去:

      I made notes on the most important things.(when I did the reading and I`ve finished making notes)

    • 说明过去一个具体时间,或过去时间是可推知的:

      I read the leaflet when I was in the library.(I`m not in the library now and the reading is finished)

    • 使用说明时段已经结束的时间表达:

      I read five books last week.(last week has finished)

注意,下列时间在现在完成时的位置:

  • 在助动词和主动词之间:如recently、already、always、ever、just、never

    I`ve already written the notes.

    I`ve just finished my essay.

    ever常用于疑问句或否定句中:

    Have you ever been to Buenos Aires?

  • 在主动词之后:如all my life、every day、yet、before、for ages、for two weeks、since 2003、since I was a child等

    I`ve felt tired for weeks.

    I haven’t flown before.

    如果句子中有宾语从句,时间表达放在句尾:

    I`ve gone to bed early every night since then.

    I`ve written more than ten assignments since I started this course.

1.5 现在完成进行时(Present perfect continuous)

  • +:have/has been + verb + -ing:I`ve been studying really hard.
  • -:have/has not been + verb + -ing:He hasn`t been studying really hard.
  • ?:have/has … been + verb + -ing?:Have you been studying really hard?

描述某种状态或动作持续了多久,使用现在完成时或现在完成进行时,通常和for、since连用。

  • I`ve worked at the restaurant since I moved here.
  • I`ve been working at the restaurant for three years.

比较:

  • 现在完成进行时:

    • 强调状态或行为持续了多久:

      I`ve been reading for the past two weeks.

    • 关注行为本身(而不是关注这个行为是否已经完成):

      I`ve been writing my essay.(we don’t know if the essay is finished or not)

  • 现在完成时:

    • 强调已经完成的次数:

      I`ve read three articles.

    • 关注行为的结果或完成情况:

      I`ve written my essay.(the essay is finished but we don’t know when)

2. Past Tenses

2.1 一般过去时(Past simple)

  • +:verb + -ed(or -d):He worked for the police.
  • -:did not + verb:She didn’t work for the police.
  • ?:did … + verb? Did they work for the police?

不规则动词:go-went,come-came,write-wrote等

场景:

  • 过去已经完成的动作,通常会在句子中提到时间(若时间已知则无需提及)。

    A few weeks ago a woman called to report a robbery at her house.

  • 按照发生顺序描述的一系列动作,表示顺序时经常会使用next、then等。

    The burglar came in through the front door, picked up the woman`s handbag, emptied it out and stole her purse.

  • 过去的习惯性动作。

    When her son got older he often went out to visit his friend after school.

  • 过去长时间保持的,现在已经改变的状态。

    Bill wored for the police force for over 17 years.

2.2 过去进行时(Past continuous)

  • +:was/were + verb + -ing:She was watching the news.
  • -:was/were not + verb + -ing:They weren`t watching the news.
  • ?:was/were … + verb + -ing? Were you watching the news?

场景:

  • 为某一动作或事件(其经常为一般过去时)提供场景,通常用到when、while和as等词语

    It happened at first in the afternoon while she was watching the news on TV.

    同一时间可能进行多个动作:

    He was listening to music and working on his computer.

  • 强调某个动作而不关注动作的完成情况

    For a while last year I was working at the cinema, studying for my degree and writing a column for the local newspaper.(不知道动作是否完成,多个动作可能不知道是否同时进行)

    Last year I worked at the cinema, studied for my degree and wrote a column for the local newspaper.(猜测所有动作都已完成,或者按顺序发生)

    状态动词一般没有进行时态。

2.3 Used to and would

  • +:used to / would + infinitive:She used to / would lock the door.
  • -:did not + used to + infinitive:I didn’t use to lock the door.
  • ?:did … use to + infinitive? Did they use to lock the door?
  1. used to / would + 动词原形 用于描述过去的习惯动作。

    She used to keep the front door locked(现在不再)

    She would leave the door unlocked whenever she was at home.

    注意:would 一般不出现在被动语态和Yes/No题目中。

  2. used to + 动词原形 用于描述现在已经不存在的过去某种持续性状态。

    Bill used to work for the police force.

    当描述某种状态持续了多久时,不用used to:

    Bill worked for the police force for over 17 years.

    would 不能与状态动词同用。

2.4 过去完成时(Past perfect simple)

  • +:had + past participle:They had listened to his music.
  • -:had not + past participle:They hadn`t listened to his music.
  • ?:had … + past participle? Had they listened to his music?

场景:

  • 表示过去某时前某事已经发生(过去的过去)

    His father was a composer and his grandfather had also been a musician.

    有时会使用诸如just、already等词语,这些副词会出现在助动词和助动词之间

    By the time he was 17, Mozart`s reputation had already begun to spread through Europe.

    在事件按照年代顺序出现时,使用一般过去时

    His grandfather was a musician and his father was also a composer.

  • 由时间状语(如when、as soon as、by the time、after)引出以说明时间的顺序:

  • 表示在过去某个确定的时间点之前的不明确时间,句中通常会出现always、sometimes、never、before或by + 固定时间

    His family were richer than they had ever been before.(= they were not as rich at any time before this point in the past)

    By the time he was six, the little boy had written a composition of his own.

  • 使用引出间接引语的动词来陈述过去发生的事情:

    The man told me he had met my father a long time before.

2.5 过去完成进行时(Past perfect continuous)

  • +:had been + verb + -ing:She`d been studying for ages.
  • -:had not been + verb + -ing:he hadn`d been studying for long.
  • ?:had … been + verb + -ing? Had you been studying for long?

过去完成进行时关注的是某一动作持续时间的长短或该动作本身:

Times were hard and the family had been struggling for some time.(to show how long)

Mozart`s sister was extremely gifted at the keyboard and she had been making excellent progress.(focus on the activity)

不能表示某事过去发生的次数,通常没有进行时态

I knew the way as I had visited her several times before.(not:I knew the way I had been visiting her several times before)

描述过去的失望,或没有按预期发生的事情时,使用过去完成时

I had been hoping to go with my brother on his trip but I was too sick to go.

3. Future

3.1 现在进行时

现在进行时讨论的是针对将来的计划或明确的安排。

We`re staying in a small hotel.(we have made the arrangements)

The manager is having a party just after we get back.(time expression given)

We`re playing four matches there.(future time expression understood)

3.2 Will

  • +:will + verb:We`ll enjoy it.
  • -:will not (won`t) + verb:He won`t enjoy it.
  • ?:will … + verb? Will they enjoy it?

场景:

  • 做出预测,通常基于个人观点或过去的经验

    I think it`ll be extremely hot there.

  • 表达目前尚未安排将来有可能发生的事情:

    We`ll probably stay in some sort of mountain lodge there.

  • 表达将来可能发生的非主观的事情或事实

    The best player on the tour will get a special trophy.

    The prime minister will open the debate in parliament tomorrow.

  • 表达说话者在说话间决定要做的事情

    Tell me all about it and I`ll pass on the information to the rest of the team.

    will常用来提供帮助、做出承诺或给与建议

    Don`t worry, I`ll let everyone know.(a promise)

3.3 Going to

  • +:am/is/are + going to + verb:We`re going to hire a bus.
  • -:am/is/are not + going to + verb:He`s not going to hire a bus.
  • ?:am/is/are … + going to + verb? Are they going to hire a bus?

Going to 等价于现在进行时和will。

  • 表达已经考虑过并打算实施的将来的某种行为

    We`**re going to hire** a bus.(We intent to go, but we haven`t made the arrangements yet)

    We`re going to get a boat to a couple of the islands.

  • 根据目前事实做出的预测

    Well, we`re certainly going to have a varied trip.(I am judging this from what I know about the plans)

going to和will跟在think、doubt、expect、believe、probably、certainly、definitely、be sure后面表达对将来的看法

I think it`s going to be a great trip.

I`m sure we`ll enjoy it whatever the weather.

It`ll probably rain every day.

写作时会经常使用一些短语来代替will,比如be likely to、be predicted to、be estimated to、be certain to等

The population is likely to increase to 22 million in 2011.

The average annual rainfall is predicted to be ten percent lower than today`s figures.

九. 按句型分类例句

第一章 lt作形式主语及形式宾语的句型

  1. It is + n./adj. + to v.

    • It is interesting to learn English. 学英语很有趣
    • It is difficult for me to speak English. 说英语对我来说太难了
    • It is kind of you to help me. 你帮助我真好心。
  2. It is +n./adj. + that..

    • It was natural that George could solve the problem. 乔治能决这问题是理所当然的。
    • It is a great pity that you shouldn’t know the fact. 很遗憾你居然不了解这个事实。
  3. It is +过去分词+名词性从句

    • It is said that he is very wealthy. 据说他非常富有。
    • It is believed that the rumor is true. 人们认为那个谣传是真的。
  4. It seems / appears that… 似乎/好像……

    • It seems that the rain is coming. 好像要下雨了。
    • It appears that he knows the fact. 他似乎知道实情。
  5. find it + n./adj. +to 引导的不定式短语 发现……是……

    • I found it difficult to make others laugh. 我发现要逗别人笑很难。
    • He believed it right to tell the truth. 他相信说实话是对的。
  6. think it + n./adj. + that 从句 认为……

    • I think it certain that our team will win. 我认为我们队赢定了。
    • He made it clear that he objected to the proposal. 他已经表示得很清楚,他反对那项提议。
  7. It takes +时间名词+to 引导的不定式短语 做……花若干时间

    • It took me five months to write this book. 写这本书花了我五个月的时间。
    • It cost him 1,000 dollars to collect the stamps. 搜集这些邮票花了他 1000 美元。

第二章 to引导的不定式短语

  1. 表示目的、结果的不定式短语

    • I went to the shop to buy some ice cream. 我到商店买冰淇淋。
    • He tried a second time, only to fail again. 他再试一次,竟然还是失败。
    • He must be crazy to drive so fast. 他一定是疯了,竟然把车开得这么快。
  2. too + adj. /adv. + to + v. 太……而不能…… enough to +v 足以……

    • Kate was too tired to walk anymore. 凯特累得走不动了。
    • He was kind enough to drive me home 他开车送我回家真是好心。
  3. 疑问词+to 引导的不定式短语

    • How to begin is far more difficult than where to stop. 如何着手远比在何处结束更困难。
    • Tell me what to do next. 告诉我下一步该怎么做。
  4. want / ask + sb. +to 引导的不定式短语 想要某人……

    • She wanted me to bring her a pizza. 她要我给她带份披萨。
    • I asked Bob to wait a minute. 我要鲍勃等一下。
  5. 感官动词+ sb. +原形动词 听到某人……

    • I have never heard him play the guitar. 我从未听过他弹吉他。
  6. 不定式短语作独立副词短语

    • To tell the truth, I don’t think we can figure out a solution. 老实说,我认为我们想不出解决方法。
    • Needless to say, the budget is the main concern of the project’s manager. 不用说,预算是项目经理的主要专注点。

第三章 分词句型

  1. 主语+动词+分词补语

    • The old man sat by the window watching people passing by. 老先生坐在窗边看着路过的人群。
    • The cat lay on the bench dozing off. 这只猫躺在长椅上打盹儿。
  2. 现在分词与过去分词作宾语补足语

    • I can see birds hopping around in the tree. 我可以看到小鸟正在树上跳来跳去。
    • I heard the girls whispering together. 我听到这些女孩正在一起说悄悄话。
  3. go + v.-ing 从事…… be busy + v.-ing 忙着做……

    • Would you like to go biking with me? 你想和我一起去骑车吗?
    • She is busy making a cake for her daughters birthday. 她正忙着为女儿的生日做蛋糕。
  4. 分词结构

    • Having a bad cold, I can’t go on business today. 因为重感冒的缘故,我今天无法出差。
    • Dressed in white, Mary looked beautiful and elegant. 玛丽穿着一身白色的衣服,看起来美丽又高雅。
  5. 独立分词结构

    • The room remaining locked, he could not enter it. 房间仍锁着,他无法进去。
    • His work (having been) finished, he left with joy. 工作结束后,他高兴地离开。

第四章 含动名词的句型

  1. cannot help+ v.-ing 不得不……;不禁…… There is no + v.-ing 做……是不可能的;没人能……
    • He cannot help loving her because of her beauty. 因为她长得美,他不禁爱上了她。
    • There is no telling if there will be flying cars in the next century. 没人知道下一个世纪会不会有飞行车。
  2. worth + v.-ing 值得…… on + v.-ing 一……(就)……
    • Paris is a city worth visiting. 巴黎是座值得参观的城市。
    • On hearing the news, he turned as excited as a kid. 一听到这个消息,他立刻变得像孩子一样兴奋。
  3. prevent…from + v.-ing 使……无法……
    • The noise prevented me from falling asleep. 噪音让我无法入睡。
    • What stopped him from settling down? 什么原因使他无法安顿下来?
  4. 动名词作宾语
    • Do you remember our meeting in Tokyo three years ago? 你还记得 3 年前我们在东京见过面吗?
    • My parents don’t like me going out alone. 我父母不喜欢我单独出门。

第五章 助动词

  1. have to+原形动词 be going to +原形动词
    • I had to go shopping that afternoon. 那天下午我得去购物。
    • You don’t have to wash the car. 你不必洗车。
    • I was going to leave when it began to rain. 我正要离开时便开始下雨了。
  2. used to+原形动词 从前曾经……
    • He used to go to church on Sundays. 他以前每个星期天都去做礼拜。
    • There used to be a museum in my neighborhood. 以前我家附近有一个博物馆。
  3. would 及 should 的特别用法
    • I would like to know her name. 我想知道她的名字。
    • I would rather drink tea than coffee. 我宁可喝茶,也不喝咖啡。
    • It is strange that he should know me so well. 说来真怪,他居然这么了解我。
  4. may well +原形动词 大可……; 极有可能…… may as well +原形动词 不妨……
    • The clever boy may well be called a genius. 这个聪明的男孩大可称得上是天才。
    • We may as well go home because it’s getting dark. 我们最好回家,因为天快黑了。
  5. must / may / might / cannot have +过去分词
    • The poet must have been very young when he wrote this poem. 这位诗人写这首诗时一定非常年轻。
    • Mike may have heard the news. 迈克很可能听到过这个消息
    • He cannot have completed the work by himself. 他当时是不可能独立完成这份工作的。
  6. would / could / should / ought to / need not have +过去分词
    • You should have been more careful then. 你当时应更小心点儿才是。(你当时并未小心)
    • You need not have bought so many things you don’t need. 你原本不必买那么多你不需要的东西。(你当时却买了)

第六章 代词

  1. 代词 one, we, you 泛指全体的用法
    • One should not waste one’s youth.
    • =We should not waste our youth.
    • =You should not waste your youth.
    • 我们不应当浪费青春。
  2. 避免名词重复的用法 that of… / those of…
    • The population of Tokyo is larger than that of London. 东京的人口比伦敦的人口多。
    • The students work harder than those of our school. 这些学生比我们学校的学生用功。
  3. the former…the latter… 前者……, 后者……
    • May and Rosa are neighbors. The former is 17, while the latter is 18.
    • 梅和罗莎是邻居,前者 17 岁,而后者 18 岁。
  4. one…the other… 一个……, 另一个…… some…others… 一些……, 另一些……
    • I have two uncles; one lives in Nanjing and the other in Bejing. 我有两个叔叔;一个住在南京,另一个住在北京。
    • Some people believe in God, while others don’t. 有人相信上帝,有人则不相信。

第七章 关系词

  1. 关系代词 who, whom, which, that
    • Those who like borrowing money dislike paying back. 喜欢借钱的人都不喜欢还钱。
    • He is a man whom l can trust. 他是我可以信赖的人。
    • I have read the book which he just mentioned. 我看过他刚提到的那本书
    • This is the picture that he took yesterday. 这是他昨天拍的照片。
  2. 关系代词所有格 whose
    • This is the boy whose mother is a college professor. 这就是那个妈妈是大学教授的男孩。
    • What is that building whose roof is painted blue for? 那栋屋顶漆成蓝色的建筑物是做什么用的?
  3. 有关 what 的其他重要用法
    • His father gave him what little money he had saved. 他的父亲把仅存的一点儿钱都给他了。
    • He is what you call a “walking dictionary. 他就是你所谓的“活字典”。
    • He is a good scholar, and what is better, a good teacher. 他是个优秀的学者,更棒的是,他还是个好老师。
    • Reading is to the mind what exercise is to the body. 读书之于心灵犹如运动之于身体。
  4. 准关系代词 as, than, but
    • I want the same watch as you are wearing. 我想要一块和你戴着的那块一样的手表。
    • This is the same camera that I lost yesterday. 这就是我昨天弄丢的照相机。
    • He is not such a man as will tell lie. 他不是那种会说谎的人。
    • The rich have more money than (is) needed. 有钱人拥有的金钱超过他所需
    • There is no rule but has exceptions. 每一种规则都有例外。
  5. 关系副词 when, where, why, how
    • Tell me the exact time when the next train will arrive. 告诉我下一班火车抵达的确切时间
    • There are some countries where the supply of fuel is very much limited. 有些国家的燃料供应非常有限。
    • Please tell me the reason why you were absent then. 请告诉我当时你为什么缺席。
    • That’s the way / how he treats people. 那就是他的待人之道
  6. 复合关系代词 whoever, whomever, whatever, whichever
    • I’ll teach English to whoever wants to learn it. 谁想学英语,我会教他。
    • You may do whatever you like. 你可以随心所欲地做任何你喜欢的事。

第八章 连词

  1. 并列连词 and, or 的用法
    • Make haste, and you will be in time for class. 动作快一点儿,你才来得及上课。
    • Do it at once, or you will regret it. 马上办这件事,否则你会后悔。
  2. not…but… 并非……而是…… not only…but (also)… 不仅……而且…… either…or… 要不……就是…… neither…nor… 既非……也非……
    • She is not my sister but my niece. 她不是我的妹妹,而是我的侄女。
    • The novelist is famous not only in China but also the world over. 这位小说家不但闻名中国且扬名全世界。
    • Either you or he has to do the work. 不是你就是他得做这项工作。
    • Neither she nor I was able to understand him. 我和她都无法了解他。
  3. both…and… ……和……两者皆 …as well as… ……以及/和……
    • His speech was both interesting and instructive. 他的演讲既有趣又有益。
    • He speaks French as well as English. 他会说法语和英语
  4. As soon as… = The moment / instant / minute… = Once…
    • As soon as he arrived in the city, he phoned his friend. 他一到这个城市,就打电话给他的朋友。
    • The moment he saw a policeman, he stopped the car at once. 他一看见警察,立马停车。
  5. not…because…. 不要因为……而…… not that… 并非…… now that… 既然……
    • You may not despise a man because he is poor. 你不可因一个人贫穷而轻视他。
    • Not that I hate the work. It’s just that l’m not equal to it. 并非我不喜欢这份工作,而是我无法胜任。
    • Now that you are well again, you can travel. 既然你已康复,你可以去旅行了。
  6. so that/ in order that… 以便…… lest… 以免……
    • Read the questions carefully so that you will not make a mistake on the test. 考试时要仔细审题,以免答错。
    • My brother works hard in order that he can get promoted. 为了能升迁,我哥哥很努力。
    • Take care lest you should fall into his trap. 当心,免得落入他的圈套。
  7. so…that… 如此地……以至…… such…that… 如此的……以至……
    • The dog is so tame that I am not afraid of it. 这只狗如此温驯,因此我并不怕它。
    • She is such a good piano player that all her friends want to listen to her play. 她钢琴弹得这么好,因此她的朋友都想听她弹奏。
  8. as 取代 though 的用法
    • Alone as he is, he doesn’t feel lonely. 虽然他独自生活,但他却不孤独。
    • Well as he knows Beijing, he lost the way. 他虽然很熟悉北京,却还是迷路了。
  9. as… 按照/如同…… so long as / as long as… 只要……
    • When in Rome, do as the Romans do. 人乡随俗。
    • You’re sure to achieve your goal as long as you try your best. 只要你尽全力,一定可以达到目标。
  10. 表“无论……”之句型
    • Whatever you (may) do, I will support you. 无论你做什么,我都支持。
    • However fast you run, you can’t catch up with time. 无论你跑多快,你都追不上时间。
  11. whether…or… 无论是否……
    • Whether the news is true or false, I won’t change my plan. 不管消息是真是假,我是不会改变计划的。
    • Whether (she is) at work or at home, she always checks the e-mails. 不管她上班或在家,她总是会查看电子邮件。
  12. Though /Although…, … 虽然……但是…… It is true that…, but… 固然……但是……
    • Though shopping online brings us great convenience, we should be more cautious. 虽然网购带给我们很大的方便,但是我们要更谨慎。
    • Although life in big cities is not as easy as we imagine, it is a good experience. 大城市生活没有我们想象的那么容易,却是个很不错的体验。
    • It is true that traveling by train is tiring, but it enables you to enjoy the scenery long the way. 乘火车旅行固然累,但却可以让你饱览沿途风景。

第九章 比较级句型

  1. as…as… 和……一样……
    • I am as busy as you. 我和你一样忙。
    • She is not as/so young as she looks. 她看起来比实际年轻。
  2. 倍数词相关句型
    • This room is five times as large as that one. 这个房间比那个房间大 5 倍。
    • He earns twice as much as he used to. 他赚的钱比过去多出一倍。
    • She spent half as much money as you (did). 她花掉的钱只有你花掉的一半。
  3. not so much…as… 与其说是……倒不如说是……
    • He is not so much a philosopher as a psychologist. 与其说他是哲学家,倒不如说他是心理学家。
    • I lay down not so much to sleep as to think. 我躺下来与其说是要睡觉,倒不如说是要思考。
  4. the+比较级…, the +比较级… 越……就越……
    • The older he grew, the weaker his memory became. 他越老,记忆力越差。
    • The hotter the weather (is), the more short-tempered I become. 天气越热,我的脾气就越差。
  5. no more…than… ……不是……正如……不是…… no less…than… 和……一样……
    • A whale is no more a fish than a horse is. 鲸鱼不是鱼,正如马不是鱼一样。
    • He is no less wise than his older brother. 他和他哥哥一样聪明。
  6. 副词短语 no more than, no less than, at most, at best, much less, still less
    • I have no more than $100. (常用) =I have not more than $100. 我最多只有 100 美元。
    • He is at most ten years old. 他最多只有 10 岁。
    • She can’t sing, much less dance. 她不会唱歌,更别提跳舞。
  7. 比较级+ than any other… 比任何其他都……
    • Autumn is better for reading than any other season. 秋天比任何季节都适合读书。
    • Health is more important than anything else in the world. 健康比世界上其他任何东西都重要。
  8. 有关最高级的重要用法
    • The richest man in the world cannot buy everything. 即使是世界上最富有的人也无法买到一切。
    • That’s the best book that I have ever read. 那是我看过的最好的书。
    • Of the three ideas, yours is the most creative. 三个想法中,你的最有创意。

第十章 虚拟语气

  1. 纯条件的虚拟语气
    • If you accept the offer, he will be pleased. 如果你接受那项提议,他会很高兴。
    • You will miss the train unless you start right now. 除非你现在出发,否则你会误了火车。
  2. 与现在事实相反的虚拟语气
    • If l were ten years younger, I would start up my own business. 如果我再年轻 10 岁,就会自己创业。
    • If could fly, l would fly you to the moon. 如果我会飞,我就带你飞到月球去。
  3. 与过去事实相反的虚拟语气
    • If I had seen him, I would have told him the truth. 如果我当时看见他,我会告诉他实情。
    • I could have finished the task if I had had more time. 如果当时我有多一点儿时间的话,就能完成这项任务了。
  4. 与将来事实相反的虚拟语气
    • If l should make as much money as $100 million, I would buy a huge villa in the countryside. 万一我将来赚够一亿美元,我会在乡下买一栋大别墅。
    • If we were to meet in 100 years, I would recognize you. 如果 100 年后我们再相遇,我会认出你来。
  5. I wish (that)… 我多希望……(实际并非如此)
    • I wish he were still alive. 我真希望他现在还活着。
    • I wish I had known you ten years ago. 真希望 10 年前就已认识你。
  6. as if/ as though… 仿佛……
    • She speaks English as if it were her mother tongue. 她说起英语来仿佛那就是她的母语。
    • He looks straightly at me as if he had never seen me. 他直视着我,好像从没见过我似的。
  7. if it were not for… 若非……
    • If it were not for the internet, I would never keep in contact / keep in touch with you. 若不是有互联网,我就再也联系不到你了。
    • If it had not been for your assistance, I couldn’t have managed the firm then. 若非有你的帮助,我当时是无法经营这家公司的。

第十一章 特殊句型

  1. 倒装句
    • Happy is a child who gets such great gifts. 小孩子收到这么棒的礼物都开心得不得了。
    • Never have I had such a terrible experience. 我从没有过这么糟糕的经历。
    • So excited was I that I unpacked the box that was beautifully wrapped. 我太激动了,便打开那个包装精美的盒子。
    • Around me sat many people with a cellphone in their hands. 许多人坐在我旁边,手里都拿着手机。
  2. “It is…”的强调句型
    • It is John who should be responsible for it. 该对这事负责的是约翰。
    • It was yesterday that he came. 他是昨天来的。
  3. 插入语
    • He is a man who I believe can do it. 他是个我相信能办这事的人。
    • There is no one whom / who I think I can trust. 没有一个我认为我可以信赖的人。
    • Who do you think can do it? 你认为谁能做这件事?
  4. 强调语句
    • What in the world are you doing here? 你到底在这儿做什么?
    • Who on earth is he? 他究竟是谁?
  5. 省略句型
    • He is quiet, and his brother (is) active. 他很安静,他的弟弟则很活跃。
    • You can come with me if you want to. 你可以和我一起来,如果你想的话。
  6. not…all 并非全部都(部分否定)
    • not…both 并非两个都(部分否定)
    • I haven’t read all of his works. 我并没有看过他所有的作品。
    • I don’t know both of his friends. 他的两个朋友我并不是都认识。
  7. never…without + v.-ing 每……必然…… never…but… 每……必然……
    • I never come to the restaurant without ordering the dish. 我每次来到这家店都会点这道菜。
    • He never reads a book but he feels sleepy. 他一看书就想睡。
  8. be far from… 一点也不…… be free from… 没有……
    • His explanation was far from satisfactory. 他的解释一点儿也不令人满意。
    • The hill is completely free from trees. 这座山丘上一棵树也没有。
  9. cannot…too… 再……也不为过,越……越好 cannot…enough…
    • You cannot be too careful when driving a car. 开车时越小心越好。
    • Pat was too tired to say anything when he got home. 派特回到家太累了,什么都不想说。
  10. be the last…to+原形动词 绝不可能是…… / 最不像是……
    • Mike is the last man to break his word. 迈克绝不是不守承诺的人。
    • He is the last man (that) I want to see now. 他是我现在最不愿见到的人。

待完成

主动语态和被动语态

被动语态:it usually gets left out